1. Who said, "The British Prime Minister is the Sun around which Planets revolve”?

William Harcourt.

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2.Is the British Parliamentary system rigid?

No, the United Kingdom Parliamentary system is not rigid. It is considered flexible because the executive and legislature work closely together, and the constitution can be changed easily by Parliament.

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3.Which federation is officially known as 'confederation'?

The federation officially known as a "confederation" is Switzerland.

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4. What is the term of the US President?

The term of the President of the United States is 4 years.

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5.What is the name of the Chinese Legislature?

The name of the Chinese Legislature is the National People's Congress (NPC).

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6.Write two features of the Parliamentary system.

Two features of the Parliamentary system:

1. The executive is responsible to the legislature.

2. The Prime Minister is the real head of the government.

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7.Mention two features of a Federal political system.

Two features of a Federal political system:

1. Powers are divided between the central government and state governments.

2. The constitution is usually written and rigid.

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8. Explain the features of a Presidential political system.

Features of a Presidential Political System

A Presidential political system is a form of government in which the President is both the head of the State and the head of the Government. In this system, the executive branch works independently from the legislature. The President is elected for a fixed term and exercises real executive powers. This system is mainly found in countries like the United States. The Presidential system is considered one of the most important democratic forms of government in the modern world.

The Presidential system is based on the principle of separation of powers. The legislature, executive, and judiciary function separately and independently. Each organ has its own powers and responsibilities. This system aims to prevent concentration of power in a single authority and ensures proper checks and balances among different organs of government.

1. Separation of Powers

The most important feature of the Presidential system is the separation of powers. The executive, legislature, and judiciary are kept separate from one another. The President does not depend on the legislature for holding office, and members of the executive are generally not members of the legislature. Each organ performs its own functions independently.

The legislature makes laws, the executive implements laws, and the judiciary interprets laws. This separation helps in maintaining balance in the administration and prevents misuse of power. The system ensures that no organ becomes too powerful.

2. President as Real Executive

In the Presidential system, the President is the real executive authority. He is both the head of the State and the head of the Government. All executive powers are exercised in his name. He appoints ministers, administrators, and important officials to carry out governmental functions.

The President takes major decisions regarding administration, foreign policy, national security, and other important matters. Unlike the Parliamentary system, there is no nominal executive in the Presidential form of government.

3. Fixed Tenure of the President

The President is elected for a fixed period, usually four or five years depending on the constitution of the country. During this period, the President cannot normally be removed from office except through impeachment or other constitutional procedures.

This fixed tenure provides stability to the government because the executive does not fall due to loss of majority support in the legislature. The administration can continue smoothly without frequent political crises.

4. Independence of the Executive

The executive branch is independent of the legislature. The President does not depend upon the confidence of the legislature for continuation in office. Similarly, the legislature cannot remove the President by passing a vote of no-confidence.

This independence allows the President to take decisions freely and efficiently. It also reduces political instability and frequent changes in government.

5. Checks and Balances

The Presidential system follows the principle of checks and balances. Although the organs of government are separate, each organ has certain powers to check the others. This prevents any branch from becoming autocratic.

For example, the legislature may control financial matters, approve important appointments, or impeach the President in serious situations. The judiciary may declare laws unconstitutional, while the President may veto bills passed by the legislature.

6. Non-Responsibility to Legislature

In the Presidential system, the executive is not collectively responsible to the legislature. Ministers are responsible to the President and not to Parliament or Congress. The President remains in office even if the legislature opposes certain policies.

This feature distinguishes the Presidential system from the Parliamentary system where the executive remains in power only so long as it enjoys majority support in the legislature.

7. Cabinet as Advisory Body

The ministers or secretaries appointed by the President act mainly as advisers. They help the President in administration and implementation of policies. However, the final decision-making power rests with the President.

The cabinet members are usually experts in different fields and are selected by the President according to his choice. They are not necessarily members of the legislature.

8. Stability of Government

The Presidential system provides stability because the executive has a fixed tenure. Governments do not collapse frequently due to political disagreements or withdrawal of support by political parties.

This stability helps in long-term planning, economic development, and continuity in administration. It allows the government to implement policies effectively without fear of sudden removal from office.

9. Strong Leadership

The Presidential system provides strong and effective leadership because powers are concentrated in the hands of the President. The President can take quick decisions during emergencies, wars, or national crises.

A strong executive helps in maintaining national unity and administrative efficiency. The President often becomes the symbol of the nation and represents the country internationally.

10. Written Constitution

Countries following the Presidential system usually have a written constitution. The constitution clearly defines the powers and functions of different organs of government.

The constitution acts as the supreme law of the land and limits the powers of the government. All authorities must function according to constitutional provisions.

11. Judicial Independence

The judiciary enjoys independence in the Presidential system. Courts are free from executive and legislative control. Judges interpret the constitution and protect the rights of citizens.

Judicial independence ensures justice, safeguards democracy, and prevents misuse of power by the government.

12. Impeachment Procedure

Although the President enjoys fixed tenure, he can be removed through impeachment for serious misconduct, violation of constitution, or abuse of power. Impeachment is a legal and constitutional process conducted by the legislature.

This feature ensures accountability of the President and prevents dictatorship.

Conclusion

The Presidential political system is an important form of democratic government characterized by separation of powers, fixed tenure, independent executive, and strong leadership. It provides stability and efficient administration while maintaining checks and balances among different organs of government.

However, critics argue that too much concentration of power in the hands of the President may sometimes lead to authoritarian tendencies. Despite certain limitations, the Presidential system continues to be an effective and widely practiced system of government in many countries of the world.

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9. Write a note on the classification political system.

Classification of Political System

A political system refers to the structure and functioning of political institutions through which authority is exercised in a society. It includes the relationship between the government and the people, the distribution of power, the process of decision-making, and the methods used for maintaining law and order. Political systems differ from country to country according to historical, social, economic, and cultural conditions.

Political scientists have classified political systems into different categories to understand their nature, organization, and functions. The classification of political systems helps in comparative political analysis and enables scholars to study similarities and differences among governments of various countries.

Meaning of Classification of Political System

Classification means arranging political systems into different groups on the basis of common characteristics. Political systems are classified according to factors such as distribution of power, relationship between organs of government, role of citizens, nature of constitution, and degree of political freedom.

Different political thinkers like Aristotle, Montesquieu, MacIver, Almond, and modern political scientists have proposed different methods of classification. Some classifications are traditional while others are modern and scientific.

Traditional Classification of Political Systems

The traditional classification mainly focuses on the number of rulers and the nature of government. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle classified governments into six forms on the basis of who rules and for whose benefit the government functions.

1. Monarchy

Monarchy is a form of government in which supreme power is vested in one person, usually a king or queen. The position is generally hereditary and continues for life.

Monarchy may be of two types:

• Absolute Monarchy
• Constitutional Monarchy

In an absolute monarchy, the ruler possesses unlimited powers. In a constitutional monarchy, the powers of the ruler are limited by the constitution and democratic institutions.

Examples of constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom and Japan.

2. Aristocracy

Aristocracy is a form of government in which power is exercised by a small group of privileged people considered superior because of birth, wealth, education, or military power.

Aristocratic governments generally favor the interests of the ruling class rather than the common people. Aristotle considered aristocracy a good form when rulers govern for public welfare.

3. Democracy

Democracy is a form of government in which power ultimately rests with the people. Citizens participate in government directly or indirectly through elected representatives.

Democracy is based on principles such as political equality, liberty, rule of law, free elections, and protection of rights.

Modern democratic states generally follow representative democracy where elected representatives govern on behalf of the people.

Perverted Forms of Government

According to Aristotle, when rulers govern for selfish interests instead of public welfare, governments become corrupted forms.

4. Tyranny

Tyranny is the corrupt form of monarchy in which the ruler governs according to personal interests and often uses force and oppression.

The rights and freedoms of citizens are generally ignored under tyrannical rule.

5. Oligarchy

Oligarchy is the corrupt form of aristocracy where a small group of wealthy or powerful individuals rule for their own benefit.

In oligarchic governments, ordinary people have little participation in political affairs.

6. Mobocracy or Extreme Democracy

Mobocracy refers to a distorted form of democracy in which the majority acts without respecting laws, justice, or minority rights.

Aristotle considered it a dangerous form because emotional and irrational decisions may dominate political life.

Modern Classification of Political Systems

Modern political scientists classify political systems on scientific and functional bases. They consider factors such as constitutional structure, political participation, economic organization, and relationship between central and regional governments.

1. Democratic and Authoritarian Systems

Democratic Political System

A democratic system allows people to participate in governance through free and fair elections. Fundamental rights and freedoms are protected, and the government remains accountable to the people.

Features of democracy include:

• Rule of law
• Political equality
• Free elections
• Independent judiciary
• Freedom of speech and expression
• Multi-party system

Countries like India, the United States, and the United Kingdom follow democratic systems.

Authoritarian Political System

In an authoritarian system, power is concentrated in the hands of one ruler or a small group. Political opposition is restricted and citizens have limited political freedoms.

Features include:

• Concentration of power
• Limited political freedom
• Weak opposition parties
• Control over media
• Use of force and coercion

Examples include military dictatorships and one-party states.

2. Unitary and Federal Systems

Unitary System

In a unitary system, all powers are concentrated in the central government. Regional or local governments function according to the wishes of the central authority.

Features of unitary government include:

• Single central authority
• Uniform laws
• Strong national unity
• Flexible constitution

Examples include the United Kingdom and France.

Federal System

A federal system divides powers between the central government and regional governments according to the constitution.

Features include:

• Division of powers
• Written constitution
• Independent judiciary
• Dual government structure

Examples include India, the United States, and Canada.

3. Parliamentary and Presidential Systems

Parliamentary System

In the parliamentary system, the executive is responsible to the legislature. The Prime Minister is the real executive and remains in office as long as he enjoys majority support in Parliament.

Features include:

• Fusion of executive and legislature
• Collective responsibility
• Nominal and real executive
• Flexible tenure

Presidential System

In the presidential system, the President is both head of state and government. The executive is independent of the legislature and enjoys a fixed tenure.

Features include:

• Separation of powers
• Fixed executive tenure
• Independent judiciary
• Checks and balances

4. Capitalist and Socialist Systems

Capitalist System

A capitalist political system supports private ownership of property and free market economy. Economic activities are mainly controlled by individuals and private enterprises.

Features include:

• Private property
• Profit motive
• Free competition
• Limited government control

Socialist System

A socialist system emphasizes collective ownership and government control over major means of production. It aims at reducing economic inequality.

Features include:

• Public ownership
• Economic planning
• Social welfare
• Reduction of class differences

Structural-Functional Classification

Modern political scientist Gabriel Almond introduced the structural-functional approach for classifying political systems. According to this approach, all political systems perform certain functions such as rule-making, rule-application, and rule-adjudication.

He classified political systems into:

• Anglo-American Political Systems
• Continental European Systems
• Pre-industrial Political Systems
• Totalitarian Political Systems

This classification focuses on political culture, institutional structures, and functional performance.

Importance of Classification of Political Systems

The classification of political systems is important for several reasons:

• It helps in understanding different forms of government.
• It enables comparative study of political institutions.
• It explains political development and political behavior.
• It helps in identifying strengths and weaknesses of governments.
• It promotes better understanding of international politics.

Conclusion

The classification of political systems is an essential part of political science and comparative politics. Different systems have evolved according to the needs and conditions of societies. Traditional classifications focused mainly on the number of rulers, while modern classifications consider constitutional, economic, and functional aspects.

No political system is perfect, and every system has its own merits and demerits. However, classification helps scholars and citizens understand the working of governments and the nature of political authority in different parts of the world.

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10.Which political system is known as the Westminster System'?

The United Kingdom Parliamentary system is known as the Westminster System.

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11. Which constitution follows the;principle of separation of power.

The United States Constitution.

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12. Name one strong powerful Asian country with unicameral legislature

China is a strong powerful Asian country with a unicameral legislature.

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13. Which country has shadow cabinet?

United Kingdom has the Shadow Cabinet system.

14. Which federation is officially known as c 'confederation?

Switzerland is the federation officially known as a "confederation".

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15. Point out two features of presidential system.

1. Separation of powers between the executive and the legislature.

2. The President has a fixed tenure and is not responsible to the legislature.

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16. Mention two differences between a federation and a confederation.

1. In a federation, powers are divided between the central government and state governments, whereas in a confederation, the states remain sovereign and the central authority is weak.

2. In a federation, citizens owe allegiance to both central and state governments, whereas in a confederation, citizens mainly owe allegiance to their individual states.

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17. Discuss the main features of UK Parliamentary Political System.

The Parliamentary Political System of the United Kingdom is one of the oldest and most influential democratic systems in the world. It is popularly known as the Westminster System because it developed around the British Parliament situated at Westminster in London. Many countries such as India, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand adopted this model after being influenced by the British constitutional system.

The UK Parliamentary system evolved gradually through historical developments, political struggles, conventions, customs, and constitutional practices. Unlike many countries, the United Kingdom does not have a single written constitution. Its constitution is based on statutes, conventions, judicial decisions, and historical documents.

The British Parliamentary system is considered the best example of responsible government because the executive remains accountable to Parliament. The system combines democratic representation, constitutional monarchy, cabinet government, and party politics.

1. Constitutional Monarchy

One of the main features of the UK Parliamentary Political System is constitutional monarchy. The King or Queen is the nominal head of the State, while the real powers are exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.

The monarch reigns but does not rule. All executive actions are formally carried out in the name of the Crown, but actual decisions are taken by elected representatives. The powers of the monarch are limited by constitutional conventions and democratic principles.

The monarch performs ceremonial functions such as opening Parliament, appointing the Prime Minister, signing bills into law, and representing national unity.

2. Parliamentary Sovereignty

Parliamentary sovereignty is the most important principle of the British political system. The British Parliament is considered supreme and can make, amend, or repeal any law.

No other institution can declare an Act of Parliament invalid. Courts cannot strike down laws passed by Parliament because Parliament is the highest law-making authority in the country.

Parliament consists of two Houses:

• House of Commons
• House of Lords

The House of Commons is the more powerful chamber because its members are directly elected by the people.

3. Fusion of Executive and Legislature

In the UK Parliamentary system, there is a close relationship between the executive and the legislature. The Prime Minister and ministers are members of Parliament.

This feature is known as the fusion of powers. The executive is formed from the majority party in the House of Commons and remains accountable to Parliament.

The Cabinet introduces bills, participates in debates, answers questions, and implements laws passed by Parliament.

4. Cabinet Government

Cabinet government is another major feature of the UK Parliamentary system. The Cabinet is a small group of senior ministers headed by the Prime Minister.

The Cabinet formulates government policies, directs administration, prepares legislation, and coordinates the work of different departments.

Cabinet decisions are collectively binding on all ministers. If a minister disagrees with Cabinet policy, he must either support the decision publicly or resign from office.

5. Prime Minister as Real Executive

The Prime Minister is the real executive authority in the British Parliamentary system. He is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and head of the government.

The Prime Minister selects ministers, presides over Cabinet meetings, coordinates administration, advises the monarch, and directs national policies.

Because of his dominant position, some scholars describe the Prime Minister as the "Sun around which all planets revolve."

6. Collective Responsibility

The principle of collective responsibility is a basic feature of the British Cabinet system. According to this principle, all ministers are jointly responsible to Parliament for the actions and decisions of the Cabinet.

If the House of Commons passes a vote of no-confidence against the government, the entire Cabinet must resign.

Collective responsibility ensures unity, discipline, secrecy, and coordination within the government.

7. Individual Responsibility

Besides collective responsibility, ministers are individually responsible for the administration of their departments.

Each minister must answer questions in Parliament regarding departmental policies and activities. If serious mistakes or scandals occur, the concerned minister may resign.

This principle promotes accountability and administrative efficiency.

8. Leadership of Political Parties

Political parties play an important role in the British Parliamentary system. The party winning majority seats in the House of Commons forms the government.

The leader of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, while the second largest party acts as the opposition.

Party discipline is very strong in the UK. Members generally follow party decisions and vote according to party policies.

9. Presence of Official Opposition

The British system recognizes the importance of opposition in democracy. The largest opposition party forms the Official Opposition.

The opposition criticizes government policies, offers alternatives, and keeps the government accountable.

The leader of the opposition enjoys official recognition and certain privileges.

10. Shadow Cabinet

The opposition party forms a Shadow Cabinet consisting of senior leaders who monitor the activities of government ministers.

Each shadow minister specializes in a particular department and prepares alternative policies. The Shadow Cabinet is ready to assume power if the ruling party loses majority support.

This system strengthens democracy and ensures effective parliamentary debate.

11. Bicameral Legislature

The UK Parliament is bicameral, meaning it consists of two houses:

• House of Commons
• House of Lords

The House of Commons is directly elected and exercises greater powers in financial and legislative matters.

The House of Lords acts mainly as a revising chamber. It examines bills, suggests amendments, and delays legislation for reconsideration.

12. Rule of Law

The British political system is based on the principle of rule of law. This means that everyone is equal before the law and government actions must follow legal procedures.

No person is above the law, including government officials. Citizens enjoy legal protection against arbitrary actions.

The concept of rule of law was strongly explained by A.V. Dicey.

13. Flexible Constitution

The British Constitution is flexible because constitutional laws can be changed by ordinary legislative procedures.

There is no special procedure required for constitutional amendment. Parliament can modify constitutional principles by passing ordinary Acts.

This flexibility allows the constitution to adapt to changing political and social conditions.

14. Unwritten Constitution

The United Kingdom does not possess a single written constitutional document. The constitution consists of:

• Statutes
• Constitutional conventions
• Judicial decisions
• Historical documents
• Customs and traditions

Important constitutional documents include the Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, and Act of Settlement.

15. Independent Judiciary

The judiciary in the UK is independent and impartial. Courts interpret laws and protect the rights of citizens.

Judges are expected to remain free from political influence and ensure fair administration of justice.

An independent judiciary strengthens democracy and public confidence in the legal system.

16. Democratic Representation

The House of Commons is elected through universal adult franchise. Citizens participate in government indirectly by electing representatives.

Regular elections ensure public participation, accountability, and democratic legitimacy.

The government remains responsive to public opinion because it must seek re-election periodically.

17. Responsible Government

The British Parliamentary system is also called responsible government because the executive remains responsible to Parliament.

The Cabinet must retain the confidence of the House of Commons to continue in office. Loss of majority support leads to resignation or fresh elections.

This feature ensures democratic accountability and prevents misuse of executive power.

Conclusion

The UK Parliamentary Political System is one of the most successful democratic systems in the world. It combines constitutional monarchy, cabinet government, parliamentary sovereignty, party system, and responsible government.

Its flexibility, stability, democratic traditions, and accountability have influenced many countries across the globe. Although the system has certain weaknesses such as excessive party control and executive dominance, it continues to function effectively because of strong political traditions and constitutional conventions.

The British Parliamentary system remains an important model for the study of comparative politics and democratic governance.

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18. Explain the main ſeatures of Swiss Federal System.

The Swiss Federal System is one of the most successful and unique federal systems in the world. Switzerland is officially known as the Swiss Confederation, but in practice it follows a federal form of government. The Swiss political system combines federalism, democracy, decentralization, and direct participation of citizens in governance.

Switzerland is situated in Europe and consists of different linguistic, cultural, and religious communities. The federal system was adopted to maintain unity among diverse groups while protecting the autonomy of different regions known as cantons.

The modern federal constitution of Switzerland was established in 1848 and later revised in 1874 and 1999. The Swiss Federal System is admired because it successfully balances national unity with regional independence.

1. Federal Structure

The most important feature of the Swiss political system is its federal structure. Powers are divided between the Federal Government and the Cantons according to the constitution.

Switzerland consists of 26 cantons, and each canton enjoys autonomy in matters related to local administration, education, police, health, and culture.

The Federal Government controls matters of national importance such as defense, foreign affairs, currency, and national transportation.

This division of powers helps maintain both national unity and regional independence.

2. Written Constitution

Switzerland has a written constitution that clearly defines the powers and functions of the federal government and cantons.

The constitution is regarded as the supreme law of the land, and all authorities must function according to constitutional provisions.

The written constitution protects the rights of citizens and prevents conflicts between the central and regional governments.

3. Rigid Constitution

The Swiss Constitution is rigid because it cannot be amended easily through ordinary legislative procedures.

Constitutional amendments require approval by both:

• A majority of Swiss voters
• A majority of the cantons

This process ensures that important constitutional changes receive broad national support.

4. Division of Powers

In the Swiss Federal System, powers are clearly divided between the federal government and the cantons.

The constitution specifies the powers of the federal government, while residual powers are left to the cantons.

This feature protects regional autonomy and prevents excessive centralization of power.

The cantons possess considerable authority and function almost like small states within the federation.

5. Bicameral Legislature

The Swiss Federal Legislature is known as the Federal Assembly. It consists of two houses:

• National Council
• Council of States

The National Council represents the people, while the Council of States represents the cantons.

Both houses enjoy equal powers in legislative matters. A bill becomes law only after approval by both chambers.

This arrangement ensures fair representation of both population and cantonal interests.

6. Collegial Executive System

Unlike many countries that have a single executive head, Switzerland follows a plural executive system.

The executive authority is vested in the Federal Council consisting of seven members elected by the Federal Assembly.

All members collectively perform executive functions and make decisions together.

The President of Switzerland is elected from among the members of the Federal Council for one year. The President is considered "first among equals" and does not possess extraordinary powers.

This collegial system prevents concentration of power in one individual.

7. Direct Democracy

One of the most unique features of the Swiss Federal System is direct democracy. Swiss citizens directly participate in the law-making process through instruments such as referendum and initiative.

Referendum

A referendum allows citizens to approve or reject laws passed by Parliament.

There are two main types of referendum:

• Mandatory Referendum
• Optional Referendum

Constitutional amendments require mandatory referendum approval.

Initiative

The popular initiative allows citizens to propose constitutional amendments by collecting a required number of signatures.

This feature gives people direct influence over government policies and constitutional changes.

8. Multi-Party System

Switzerland follows a multi-party system in which several political parties participate in elections and governance.

No single party usually dominates politics completely. Different parties cooperate and share responsibilities in government.

This promotes political stability, consensus, and cooperation among various social groups.

9. Strong Cantonal Autonomy

The cantons enjoy extensive powers and autonomy under the Swiss Federal System.

Each canton has:

• Its own constitution
• Legislature
• Executive
• Judiciary

Cantons independently manage local matters according to regional needs and traditions.

This autonomy helps preserve cultural diversity and local identity.

10. Independent Judiciary

Switzerland has an independent judiciary that interprets laws and settles disputes between the federal government and cantons.

The Federal Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in the country.

An independent judiciary ensures protection of constitutional principles and citizens’ rights.

11. Neutral Foreign Policy

Switzerland is internationally known for its policy of neutrality. The country avoids participation in military alliances and international wars.

Swiss neutrality has contributed to political stability and international respect.

Many international organizations maintain headquarters in Switzerland because of its neutral status.

12. Decentralization of Administration

The Swiss Federal System follows the principle of decentralization. Administrative powers are distributed among federal, cantonal, and local governments.

Local authorities enjoy considerable freedom in managing public affairs.

Decentralization increases efficiency and encourages public participation in administration.

13. Protection of Linguistic and Cultural Diversity

Switzerland is a multilingual country with German, French, Italian, and Romansh speaking populations.

The federal system protects linguistic and cultural rights of different communities.

Citizens are free to preserve their language, culture, and traditions without fear of domination by any single group.

This feature strengthens national unity despite diversity.

14. Cooperative Federalism

The relationship between the federal government and cantons is generally cooperative rather than conflict-oriented.

Both levels of government work together for national development and welfare.

Cooperation and compromise are important characteristics of Swiss political culture.

15. Stability and Efficiency

The Swiss Federal System is known for political stability and efficient governance.

Power-sharing arrangements, direct democracy, cantonal autonomy, and consensus politics reduce political conflicts.

The system has successfully maintained peace, prosperity, and democratic traditions for a long period.

Conclusion

The Swiss Federal System is a remarkable example of democratic federalism. It successfully combines federal structure, direct democracy, cantonal autonomy, and collective leadership.

The system protects regional diversity while maintaining national unity. Its emphasis on public participation, decentralization, and cooperation has made Switzerland one of the most stable and prosperous democracies in the world.

Although the system may sometimes slow down decision-making due to extensive consultation and referendums, it remains an effective model of democratic governance and federal organization.

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19. Who said, “Prime Minister is a moon among the stars”?

Ivar Jennehop.

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20. Write one merit of presidential system of government.

This form of government has stability.

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21. Write the name of the upper house of the British Parliament.

House of Lords.

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22. What is the term of a Senator?

6 years.

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23. In which year was the present Constitution of Switzerland enforced?

1st January 2000.

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24. Mention two differences between a federation and a confederation.

1) In a federation, the central government is stronger, whereas in a confederation, the states are stronger.

2) In a federation, states cannot secede freely, whereas in a confederation, member states may leave the union.

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25. Write the name of two major political parties of Great Britain.

1. Conservative Party

2. Labour Party

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26.How is the American President Elected? How can he be Impeached?

The President of the United States of America is the head of the state and also the head of the government. The Constitution of the United States provides an indirect method for the election of the President. The President is elected for a term of four years and may be re-elected only once.

Election of the American President

The election of the American President is conducted through a special electoral system known as the Electoral College System. The people do not directly elect the President. They elect representatives called electors, and these electors finally elect the President.

The election process takes place in several stages.

First, different political parties nominate their candidates for the office of the President. The two major political parties in America are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Candidates are selected through primary elections and party conventions.

After the nomination of candidates, election campaigns are conducted throughout the country. The candidates travel to different states, deliver speeches, participate in debates, and explain their policies and programmes before the people. The main objective of the campaign is to gain the support of voters.

The presidential election is generally held in November every four years. In this election, the citizens vote for electors and not directly for the President. Every state is allotted a certain number of electors equal to its representation in Congress.

The candidate who receives the majority of popular votes in a state usually wins all the electoral votes of that state. This method is popularly known as the winner-takes-all system.

The elected electors meet in their respective state capitals in December and cast their votes for the President and Vice-President.

The electoral votes are officially counted in a joint session of Congress in January. The candidate who secures an absolute majority of electoral votes becomes the President of the United States.

If no candidate secures the required majority, the House of Representatives elects the President from among the leading candidates.

Impeachment of the American President

The President of the United States can be removed from office through the process of impeachment. Impeachment is a constitutional process through which the President is charged and tried for serious offences.

According to the American Constitution, the President may be impeached for treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.

The impeachment process begins in the House of Representatives. If sufficient evidence is found against the President, charges are framed against him. These charges are known as Articles of Impeachment.

The House of Representatives debates the charges and votes on them. If the charges are approved by a simple majority, the President is considered impeached.

After impeachment by the House of Representatives, the case is sent to the Senate for trial. The Senate acts as a court during the impeachment trial. When the President is tried, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the proceedings.

The Senators examine the evidence, hear the arguments, and finally vote on the charges. If two-thirds of the Senators present vote against the President, he is removed from office.

If the required two-thirds majority is not obtained, the President continues in office.

Conclusion

The election system of the American President reflects the federal nature of the United States. The process of impeachment ensures responsibility and accountability of the President. Thus, both the election and impeachment procedures are important features of the American political system.

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27.Discuss the Main Features of the Unitary Political System of China.

China follows a unitary political system in which all powers are mainly concentrated in the hands of the central government. The People's Republic of China was established in 1949 under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. The Constitution of China provides the basic framework of the political system. Although China has provinces and local governments, the central authority exercises supreme control over the entire country.

Main Features of the Unitary Political System of China

One of the most important features of the Chinese political system is the supremacy of the central government. All provinces, municipalities, and local administrative units remain under the authority and control of the central government. The central government can create, alter, or abolish local units according to its needs.

Another important feature is the dominance of the Communist Party of China. China is basically a one-party state where the Communist Party plays the most powerful role in political affairs. All important decisions regarding administration, economy, defence, and foreign policy are influenced and controlled by the Communist Party.

The Chinese political system is based on the principle of democratic centralism. Under this principle, lower organs of government are subordinate to higher organs, and all local authorities must obey the decisions of the central authority. Once decisions are taken by higher authorities, everyone is expected to follow them strictly.

The National People's Congress is the highest organ of state power in China. It is the supreme legislative body of the country. The Congress makes laws, approves policies, amends the Constitution, and elects important officials of the state.

The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress performs legislative functions when the Congress is not in session. It exercises significant powers and ensures continuity in governance.

The President of China is the formal head of the state. However, the real power is generally exercised by the leadership of the Communist Party, especially the General Secretary of the Party and the Central Military Commission.

The State Council is the highest executive organ of the government. It is headed by the Premier and consists of ministers and other officials. The State Council implements laws, manages administration, and supervises various departments of the government.

China also has a unified judicial system. The Supreme People's Court is the highest judicial authority in the country. Courts at lower levels function under the supervision of higher courts. The judiciary does not enjoy complete independence as seen in many democratic countries.

Another important feature is the absence of a multiparty competitive political system. Although a few minor political parties exist in China, they do not function as opposition parties. The Communist Party maintains overall political leadership.

The Chinese political system gives great importance to national unity and territorial integrity. The central government keeps strict control over all regions to maintain stability and unity within the country.

China also follows the system of local self-government under the supervision of the centre. Local governments perform administrative functions, but they cannot act independently against the wishes of the central authority.

Economic planning and state control over important sectors have traditionally been important characteristics of the Chinese system. Although China has introduced economic reforms and allowed some market practices, the state still maintains strong control over major economic activities.

Another feature of the Chinese political system is the important role of the military. The People's Liberation Army is under the control of the Communist Party and helps protect the authority of the state and the party leadership.

China also recognizes certain autonomous regions for ethnic minorities. However, these regions remain under the effective control of the central government and do not enjoy complete autonomy.

Conclusion

The unitary political system of China is characterized by centralization of power, dominance of the Communist Party, democratic centralism, and strong control of the central government over all administrative units. The system aims to maintain political stability, national unity, and economic development. Thus, the Chinese political system represents a highly centralized and controlled form of government.

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28. What is the origin of the term ‘federation’? Which federation is called a model federation?

The term ‘federation’ has been derived from the Latin word Foedus, which means treaty or agreement. A federation is a political system in which powers are divided between the central government and the state governments according to the Constitution. Switzerland is called a model federation because it successfully maintains unity among people belonging to different languages, religions, and cultures.

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29. Point out two features of presidential system.

SAME AS Q.15

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30. What is unitary system?

A unitary system is a form of government in which all powers are concentrated in the hands of the central government. The local governments work under the control and supervision of the central authority. England is an example of a unitary system.

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31. What is Parliamentary Political System? Explain the Features of a Parliamentary Political System.

A parliamentary political system is a form of government in which the executive is closely connected with the legislature and remains responsible to it. In this system, the real executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, while the nominal executive is the Head of the State such as the King, Queen, or President.

The parliamentary system is also known as the Cabinet System or Responsible Government because the executive remains responsible to the legislature for all its actions and policies. This system originated in Great Britain and later spread to many countries such as India, Canada, Australia, and Japan.

Features of Parliamentary Political System

One of the most important features of the parliamentary political system is the existence of two types of executive. There is a nominal executive and a real executive. The nominal executive may be the King, Queen, or President who acts as the constitutional head of the state. The real executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

Another important feature is the close relationship between the executive and the legislature. The members of the Council of Ministers are generally selected from the legislature and remain a part of it. Thus, the executive and legislature are closely connected with each other.

Collective responsibility is another major characteristic of the parliamentary system. The Council of Ministers remains collectively responsible to the lower house of the legislature. If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against the ministry, the entire ministry has to resign from office.

The Prime Minister occupies a very important position in the parliamentary system. He is regarded as the real head of the government and the leader of the majority party in the legislature. The Prime Minister selects ministers, distributes portfolios among them, presides over cabinet meetings, and coordinates the work of the government.

The cabinet is the central decision-making body in the parliamentary system. Important policies and decisions of the government are discussed and approved in cabinet meetings. The cabinet directs the administration and controls the functioning of different government departments.

The parliamentary system is based on party government. The political party which secures majority seats in the legislature forms the government. The leader of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister.

An organized opposition party is another important feature of the parliamentary system. The opposition criticizes the policies and actions of the government and helps in preventing misuse of power. It plays an important role in maintaining democratic accountability.

In the parliamentary system, the tenure of the ministry is uncertain. The ministry remains in office only so long as it enjoys the confidence and support of the majority in the legislature. If it loses majority support, it must resign.

The parliamentary system also ensures flexibility in administration. The government can easily be changed without any violent revolution or constitutional crisis. A new ministry can be formed whenever the existing government loses the confidence of the legislature.

Another feature of this system is harmony between the executive and the legislature. Since ministers are members of the legislature, cooperation between the two organs becomes easier. This helps in smooth administration and quick passage of laws.

In the parliamentary system, debates and discussions are given great importance. Government policies are discussed openly in the legislature, and ministers are required to answer questions asked by members of the legislature.

The parliamentary system gives importance to public opinion. The government always tries to maintain public support because loss of public confidence may lead to defeat in elections or removal from office.

Another important feature is leadership by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister acts as the link between the nominal executive and the legislature. He also serves as the chief spokesman of the government both inside and outside the legislature.

The parliamentary system promotes democratic governance because the executive remains continuously responsible to the elected representatives of the people. It prevents dictatorship and encourages accountability.

Merits of Parliamentary Political System

The parliamentary system ensures responsibility of the executive to the legislature. It provides flexibility in administration and promotes cooperation between different organs of government. The system also allows peaceful change of government and encourages democratic discussion and debate.

Demerits of Parliamentary Political System

The parliamentary system may sometimes lead to political instability, especially when no party gets a clear majority. Frequent changes of government may affect administrative efficiency. Party politics and political pressure may also influence government decisions.

Conclusion

The parliamentary political system is one of the most widely practiced forms of democratic government in the world. It emphasizes responsibility, cooperation, and accountability in administration. Although the system has certain weaknesses, it plays an important role in maintaining democratic values and ensuring responsible government.

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32. What is Political System? Distinguish between Parliamentary and Presidential Systems?

A political system refers to the structure and process through which political power is organized, exercised, and controlled in a state. It includes the institutions of government, political parties, laws, administration, and the relationship between the state and citizens. A political system determines how decisions are made, how authority is exercised, and how public policies are implemented in society.

Every country has its own political system according to its history, culture, traditions, and constitutional framework. The political system helps maintain law and order, protect the rights of citizens, ensure justice, and promote welfare and development.

Political systems are generally classified into different forms such as democratic system, authoritarian system, parliamentary system, and presidential system. Among these, parliamentary and presidential systems are two important democratic forms of government practiced in different countries of the world.

Parliamentary System

The parliamentary system is a form of government in which the executive remains responsible to the legislature. The real executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The nominal executive may be a King, Queen, or President.

Countries like India and the United Kingdom follow the parliamentary system of government.

Presidential System

The presidential system is a form of government in which the President is both the head of the state and the head of the government. The President is elected independently and does not remain responsible to the legislature in the same manner as in the parliamentary system.

The United States of America is the best example of a presidential system.

Difference between Parliamentary and Presidential Systems

The first major difference between the parliamentary and presidential systems is related to the executive. In the parliamentary system, there are two executives — the nominal executive and the real executive. The nominal executive is the constitutional head, while the Prime Minister is the real executive. In the presidential system, the President himself is both the nominal and real executive.

Another important difference is regarding the relationship between the executive and legislature. In the parliamentary system, the executive and legislature are closely connected because ministers are members of the legislature. In the presidential system, there is a clear separation of powers between the executive and legislature.

In the parliamentary system, the Council of Ministers remains collectively responsible to the legislature. If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence, the ministry must resign. But in the presidential system, the President is not responsible to the legislature and cannot be removed through a vote of no-confidence.

The tenure of the executive is also different in the two systems. In the parliamentary system, the ministry remains in office only as long as it enjoys majority support in the legislature. Therefore, the tenure may be uncertain. In the presidential system, the President enjoys a fixed tenure, usually for four or five years.

Another difference is found in leadership. In the parliamentary system, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the legislature. In the presidential system, the President is elected separately by the people or through an electoral system.

The parliamentary system emphasizes cooperation between the executive and legislature. This ensures harmony between the two organs of government. On the other hand, the presidential system emphasizes separation of powers and independence of different organs.

In the parliamentary system, cabinet decisions are taken collectively by the Council of Ministers under the leadership of the Prime Minister. In the presidential system, the President exercises executive powers independently with the help of secretaries or advisors.

Another important difference is political stability. The presidential system generally provides greater stability because the President enjoys a fixed term. The parliamentary system may sometimes suffer from political instability due to coalition politics or frequent changes of government.

The role of the opposition is also important in the parliamentary system. The opposition actively participates in debates and criticizes government policies in the legislature. In the presidential system, the executive is comparatively independent from legislative opposition.

The parliamentary system is considered more flexible because the government can easily be changed without constitutional crisis. The presidential system is comparatively rigid because the President remains in office for a fixed term unless impeached.

Merits of Parliamentary System

The parliamentary system promotes responsibility and accountability of the executive to the legislature. It encourages democratic discussion, cooperation, and flexibility in administration.

Merits of Presidential System

The presidential system ensures stability and strong leadership. The separation of powers prevents concentration of authority in a single institution.

Conclusion

Both parliamentary and presidential systems have their own advantages and disadvantages. The parliamentary system emphasizes responsibility and cooperation, while the presidential system emphasizes stability and separation of powers. Different countries adopt different systems according to their political conditions and constitutional traditions.

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